ming dynasty endingming dynasty ending

On 7 August 1461, the Chinese general Cao Qin and his Ming troops of Mongol descent staged a coup against the Tianshun Emperor out of fear of being next on his purge-list of those who aided him in the Wresting the Gate Incident. Renowned artists often gathered an entourage of followers, some who were amateurs who painted while pursuing an official career and others who were full-time painters. The first expedition was manned by 28,000 sailors onboard 62 or 63 large ships and 255 smaller vessels. [62] Scholar-officials lost prominence in administration as eunuchs became intermediaries between the aloof emperor and his officials; any senior official who wanted to discuss state matters had to persuade powerful eunuchs with a bribe simply to have his demands or message relayed to the emperor. After overthrowing the Song Dynasty and rising himself to the imperial Chinese Zhu emphasised that he was not conquering territory from the Yuan dynasty but rather from the rebel warlords. [12] Consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River. Officials were classified in nine hierarchic grades, each grade divided into two degrees, with ranging salaries (nominally paid in piculs of rice) according to their rank. Watch Trailer. and more. However, from the Yongle emperor onward, the emperors relied increasingly on trusted eunuchs to contain the literati. The Mingshi the official history of the Ming dynasty compiled by the Qing dynasty in 1739 states that the Ming established itinerant commanderies overseeing Tibetan administration while also renewing titles of ex-Yuan dynasty officials from Tibet and conferring new princely titles on leaders of Tibetan Buddhist sects. The artist Qiu Ying was once paid 2.8kg (100oz) of silver to paint a long handscroll for the eightieth birthday celebration of the mother of a wealthy patron. Throughout the Ming dynasty, around fifty texts were published on the treatment of smallpox. [229] Even adult women were underreported;[230] for example, the Daming Prefecture in North Zhili reported a population of 378,167 males and 226,982 females in 1502. Instead, the emperor took over personal control of the government, ruling with the assistance of the especially appointed Neige, or Grand Secretariat. With growing alarm, the Chongzhen Emperor of Ming watched the rebel troops under Li Zicheng advance toward Beijing. Above all, the effects induced by this situation were especially politically harmful. [108] As in prior dynasties, the provincial administrations were monitored by a travelling inspector from the Censorate. The dynasty was in power for close to 270 years and is regarded as one among the greatest forms of government and social order in history (Chan, 3). [89], A Jurchen tribal leader named Nurhaci (r. 161626), starting with just a small tribe, rapidly gained control over all the Manchurian tribes. These events occurring at roughly the same time caused a dramatic spike in the value of silver and made paying taxes nearly impossible for most provinces. In both 1642 and 1643, Manchu bannermen drove deep into China, seizing territory and loot. However, he also sought to use the Yuan legacy to legitimize his authority in China and other areas ruled by the Yuan. [83] People began hoarding precious silver as there was progressively less of it, forcing the ratio of the value of copper to silver into a steep decline. [16] Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or "Vastly Martial", as his era name. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like What was the nature of European interaction in Asia through the 1600?, Who were the Manchus and how did they rule?, Why did the Ming Dynasty end? [92][93] In 1638 Banner Armies defeated and conquered Joseon 100,000 troops in the Second Manchu invasion of Korea. Do not recommend. The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, who was of humble origins and later assumed the reign title of Hongwu. History and key facts on Great Ming's emperors, social events, culture development and foreign relations. His troops looted the capital for a couple of days and then scampered west on June 4, 1644, ahead of the advancing Manchus. Ming dynasty, Wade-Giles romanization Ming, Chinese dynasty that lasted from 1368 to 1644 and provided an interval of native Chinese rule between eras of Mongol and Manchu dominance, respectively. However, these laws were no longer enforced from the middle Ming period onwards. The early Ming court could not, and did not, aspire to the control imposed upon the Jurchens in Manchuria by the Mongols, yet it created a norm of organization that would ultimately serve as the main instrument for the relations with peoples along the northeast frontiers. [151] The new literary field of the moral guide to business ethics was developed during the late Ming period, for the readership of the merchant class. The writing materials in a scholar's private study, including elaborately carved brush holders made of stone or wood, were designed and arranged ritually to give an aesthetic appeal. "The Fall of the Ming Dynasty in China in 1644." [119] Starting in the 1420s, eunuchs began taking over these ladies' positions until only the Bureau of Apparel with its four subsidiary offices remained. Although a high level of workmanship is manifest in Ming decorative arts such as cloisonn, enamelware, bronze, lacquerwork, and furniture, the major achievements in art were in painting and pottery. A jade recumbent bear. Known for its trade expansion to the outside world that . The Ming dynasty (/ m /), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty.The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han people, the majority ethnic group in China.Although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng (who established the . Many Chinese did not like the Mongols and considered them the enemy. T oward the end of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), many literati scholars resigned their official positions, seeing their good work gone to waste in a realm plagued by corruption. US $282.00. The Ming dynasty in China (1368-1644), that's a dynasty. 153058) who added a fourth large gear wheel, changed gear ratios, and widened the orifice for collecting sand grains since he criticized the earlier model for clogging up too often. Zhu, who was of humble origins, later assumed the reign title of Hongwu. The ethnic aspect of the banner system also started to change. [225] Inoculation, although it can be traced to earlier Chinese folk medicine, was detailed in Chinese texts by the sixteenth century. [31][43][44][45] By the late 16th century, the Mongols proved to be successful armed protectors of the Yellow Hat Dalai Lama after their increasing presence in the Amdo region, culminating in the conquest of Tibet by Gshi Khan (15821655) in 1642,[31][46][47] establishing the Khoshut Khanate. First, the Yongle Emperor who sponsored Zheng He's first six voyages died in 1424. We usually get Tsangs, and it is much much better quality than here. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han people, the majority ethnic group in China. . Frustrated, Li marched out in person at the head of a 60,000-strong force to take on Wu. 136080) which featured the scoop wheel of Su Song's earlier astronomical clock and a stationary dial face over which a pointer circulated, similar to European models of the time. He also used the military to expand China's borders. The Hongwu Emperor sent his heir apparent to Shaanxi in 1391 to "tour and soothe" (xunfu) the region; in 1421 the Yongle Emperor commissioned 26 officials to travel the empire and uphold similar investigatory and patrimonial duties. There were three principal reasons for this decision. The basic governmental structure established by the Ming was continued by the subsequent Qing (Manchu) dynasty and lasted until the imperial institution was abolished in 1911/12. High end private customization Film TV costume Qin Han. In 1618 he demanded tribute from the Ming to redress "Seven Grievances. In the past, Li Yu, the queen of the Southern Tang Dynasty, was imprisoned, and then the emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Chongzhen, hanged himself, which made people sigh. However, there was no one after him skilled enough to maintain the stability of these alliances;[61] officials soon banded together in opposing political factions. [99] Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing until 1662, when the last Southern Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, the Yongli Emperor, was captured and executed. This includes hollow, gunpowder-filled exploding cannonballs,[219] land mines that used a complex trigger mechanism of falling weights, pins, and a steel wheellock to ignite the train of fuses,[220] naval mines,[221] fin-mounted winged rockets for aerodynamic control,[222] multistage rockets propelled by booster rockets before igniting a swarm of smaller rockets issuing forth from the end of the missile (shaped like a dragon's head),[223] and hand cannons that had up to ten barrels. [122] There were also civil service offices to oversee the affairs of imperial princes. [8] Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200million,[11] but necessary revenues were squeezed out of smaller and smaller numbers of farmers as more disappeared from the official records or "donated" their lands to tax-exempt eunuchs or temples. 1 talking about this. The early Ming Dynasty was a period of cultural restoration and expansion. For centuries critics had pointed out these problems, but the examination system only became more abstract and less relevant to the needs of China. Well-known Ming artists could make a living simply by painting due to the high prices they demanded for their artworks and the great demand by the highly cultured community to collect precious works of art. By the 16th century, however, the expansion of European trade albeit restricted to islands near Guangzhou such as Macau spread the Columbian Exchange of crops, plants, and animals into China, introducing chili peppers to Sichuan cuisine and highly productive maize and potatoes, which diminished famines and spurred population growth. The Mongols' reign in China came to an end after a series of famines, plagues, floods and peasant uprisings. Conservatives such as Gu Xiancheng (15501612) argued against Wang's idea of innate moral knowledge, stating that this was simply a legitimization for unscrupulous behavior such as greedy pursuits and personal gain. [64][65][66][67], The Hongwu Emperor forbade eunuchs to learn how to read or engage in politics. [31], Modern scholars debate whether the Ming dynasty had sovereignty over Tibet. [191], Early Ming dynasty saw the strictest sumptuary laws in Chinese history. Over time Wanli grew tired of court affairs and frequent political quarreling amongst his ministers, preferring to stay behind the walls of the Forbidden City and out of his officials' sight. [226] In regards to oral hygiene, the ancient Egyptians had a primitive toothbrush of a twig frayed at the end, but the Chinese were the first to invent the modern bristle toothbrush in 1498, although it used stiff pig hair. There were over 4,000 school instructors in county and prefectural schools who were subject to evaluations every nine years. In practice, 90 percent of the population was ineligible due to lack of education, but the upper 10 percent had equal chances for moving to the top. Whether or not these restrictions were carried out with absolute success in his reign, eunuchs during the Yongle Emperor's reign (14021424) and afterwards managed huge imperial workshops, commanded armies, and participated in matters of appointment and promotion of officials. Xu Xiake (15871641), a travel literature author, published his Travel Diaries in 404,000 written characters, with information on everything from local geography to mineralogy. Fan is quite heartwarming, and it involves Tang Fan bargains with '! He agreed to attack Li's army, but only if Wu and the Ming army would serve under him instead. but that life came to an end when a . The Mongol rulers also squabbled amongst themselves for power and failed to quash numerous rebellions, including that . Jin Ping Mei, published in 1610, although incorporating earlier material, marks the trend toward independent composition and concern with psychology. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi, and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance. New markets were being founded, and merchants were extending their businesses across provincial lines and even into the South China Sea. Strains on the polity were intensified by a rapid incorporation of substantial new territories. By the beginning of 1644, all of China was in chaos. The Ming dynasty's founder, the Hongwu Emperor (r. 13681398), attempted to create a society of self-sufficient rural communities ordered in a rigid, immobile system that would guarantee and support a permanent class of soldiers for his dynasty:[8] the empire's standing army exceeded one million troops and the navy's dockyards in Nanjing were the largest in the world. [128], As in earlier periods, the focus of the examination was classical Confucian texts, while the bulk of test material centered on the Four Books outlined by Zhu Xi in the 12th century. The severely weakened Ming Dynasty was desperately trying to hold on to power, while a rebel leader called Li Zicheng declared his own new dynasty after capturing the capital city of Beijing. The Hongwu Emperor's generals Chang Yuqun, Lan Yu, Ding Dexing, and Mu Ying have also been identified as Muslim by Hui scholars, though this is doubted by non-Muslim sources. But artists generally stressed independent creation, impressing their work with strong marks of their personal styles. [135] The consensus of scholars is that the eight-legged essay can be blamed as a major cause of "China's cultural stagnation and economic backwardness." Meanwhile, in other parts of China, a cycle of catastrophic floods on the Yellow River, followed by wide-spread famine, convinced ordinary Chinese people that their rulers had lost the Mandate of Heaven. [179] A peasant with a great deal of experience and intelligence would then be wiser than an official who had memorized the Classics but not experienced the real world. [159] The Jesuit Matteo Ricci while staying in Nanjing wrote that Chinese scam artists were ingenious at making forgeries and huge profits. Wei also published a historical work lambasting and belittling his political opponents. [234] In his Studies on the Population of China, Ho Ping-ti suggests revising the 1393 census to 65million people, noting that large areas of North China and frontier areas were not counted in that census. In 1380 Hongwu had the Chancellor Hu Weiyong executed upon suspicion of a conspiracy plot to overthrow him; after that Hongwu abolished the Chancellery and assumed this role as chief executive and emperor, a precedent mostly followed throughout the Ming period. Instead, they returned to private life and refocused their efforts toward fostering their own artistic creativity and appreciation for aesthetics - sometimes focusing on their surroundings at home. [149][150] The first reference to the publishing of private newspapers in Beijing was in 1582; by 1638 the Peking Gazette switched from using woodblock print to movable type printing. In 1409, under the Yongle Emperor, the Ming Dynasty established the Nurgan Regional Military Commission on the banks of the Amur River, and Yishiha, a eunuch of Haixi Jurchen origin, was ordered to lead an expedition to the mouth of the Amur to pacify the Wild Jurchens. [159], Connoisseurship in the late Ming period centered on these items of refined artistic taste, which provided work for art dealers and even underground scammers who themselves made imitations and false attributions. Ming Dynasty: The ruling dynasty of China for 276 years (1368-1644), following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty; . Zhang Juzheng's initially successful reforms proved devastating when a slowdown in agriculture produced by the Little Ice Age joined changes in Japanese and Spanish policy that quickly cut off the supply of silver now necessary for farmers to be able to pay their taxes. The Yongle Emperor established Yan as a secondary capital and renamed it Beijing, constructed the Forbidden City, and restored the Grand Canal and the primacy of the imperial examinations in official appointments. However, this scheme was foiled once the emperor's younger brother assumed the throne under the era name Jingtai (r. 144957); the Oirats were also repelled once the Jingtai Emperor's confidant and defense minister Yu Qian (13981457) gained control of the Ming armed forces. Under the pretext of rescuing the young Jianwen from corrupting officials, Zhu Di personally led forces in the revolt; the palace in Nanjing was burned to the ground, along with Jianwen himself, his wife, mother, and courtiers. The Ming dynasty came into power in China right after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty. [3] Brook states that the population figures gathered in the official censuses after 1393 ranged between 51 and 62million, while the population was in fact increasing. [147] Literati scholars edited or developed major Chinese novels into mature form in this period, such as Water Margin and Journey to the West. "The Fall of the Ming Dynasty in China in 1644." A final, huge cause was the shifting climate and disruptions to the monsoon cycle of rains. The Ming Dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644. . In early Ming times, Chinas domain extended considerably in the south as a result of its successful invasion of northern Vietnam. He grew strong in the northeast, with forces large enough (numbering hundreds of thousands) to threaten invasion of the newly founded Ming dynasty in order to restore the Mongols to power in China. The Qing was the last dynasty to rule China. [23] The Ming used the tribute they received from former Yuan vassals as proof that the Ming had taken over the Yuan's legitimacy. Part 1.1: Early Ming Dynasty - Women's Clothing . The Ming sporadically sent armed forays into Tibet during the 14th century, which the Tibetans successfully resisted. The Hui troops under General Mu Ying, who was appointed Governor of Yunnan, were resettled in the region as part of a colonization effort. Seated in dhyanasana above a detachable double lotus base, with his right hand lowered in bhumisparsa mudra and the left lowered above his upturned feet, dressed in long flowing robes opening at the chest, tied at the waist, and cascading in folds, the hems incised with lotus flowers. He rewarded his eunuch supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. Rather than enjoying a good book with a cup of tea in the afternoon, instead they juggled with some infectious bugs inside their desktop computer. In the 1630s a string of one thousand copper coins equaled an ounce of silver; by 1640 that sum could fetch half an ounce; and, by 1643 only one-third of an ounce. This could possibly be the case because there was no close successor to take on and lead the maritime voyages after Zheng He's passing. Closed now : See all hours. ThoughtCo, Aug. 26, 2020, thoughtco.com/the-fall-of-the-ming-dynasty-3956385. After that the scholar-officials who populated the many ranks of bureaucracy were recruited through a rigorous examination system that was initially established by the Sui dynasty (581618). Clashes with Mongols were nearly incessant. [29] By the late Ming period, Ming's political presence in Manchuria has declined significantly. EARTHQUAKE! 538 Words3 Pages. In 1127, the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279) lost control of northern China and, with it, access to the Silk Road and Persia's riches. He offered to lead his armies to support Ming and Joseon armies against the Japanese invasions of Korea in the 1590s. [184] Jonathan Spence writes that the distinction between what was town and country was blurred in Ming China, since suburban areas with farms were located just outside and in some cases within the walls of a city. Chapter Twenty Lecture Notes Qing Dynasty 1644-1911: The Qing over threw the Ming Dynasty and was the last dynasty of the Chinese. US $160.00. Women could not use ornaments made from gold, jade, pearl or emerald. The Ming dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China for 276 years (1368-1644) following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. [195] Although Shen Kuo (10311095) and Guo Shoujing (12311316) had laid the basis for trigonometry in China, another important work in Chinese trigonometry would not be published again until 1607 with the efforts of Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci. [18][20], The Hongwu emperor issued many edicts forbidding Mongol practices and proclaiming his intention to purify China of barbarian influence. Zhu Yuanzhang was a penniless peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352; he soon gained a reputation after marrying the foster daughter of a rebel commander. [227], Sinologist historians debate the population figures for each era in the Ming dynasty. The cultivation of mulberry trees for silkworms and tea bushes could be found mostly south of the Yangzi River; even further south sugarcane and citrus were grown as basic crops. One, Zheng He, led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia and the eastern coasts of Africa. 8.8cm wide. However, by the end of the Ming the Dominicans had begun the Chinese Rites controversy in Rome that would eventually lead to a full ban of Christianity under the Qing dynasty. These lesser functionaries performed clerical and technical tasks for government agencies. [131] Ebrey states that "there were only two to four thousand of these jinshi at any given time, on the order of one out of 10,000 adult males." Traditional Chinese culture should be enforced. Described as "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history" by Edwin O. Reischauer, John K. Fairbank and Albert M. Craig,[102] the Ming emperors took over the provincial administration system of the Yuan dynasty, and the thirteen Ming provinces are the precursors of the modern provinces. Schools, descent groups, religious associations, and other local voluntary organizations were increasing in number and allowing more contact between educated men and local villagers. Corrections? Although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng (who established the short-lived Shun dynasty), numerous rump regimes ruled by remnants of the Ming imperial familycollectively called the Southern Mingsurvived until 1662.[f]. [87] In 1634 he was captured by a Ming general and released only on the terms that he return to service. In operations to the west and southwest, Ming forces destroyed the rebel Xia regime in Sichuan in 1371, wiped out major Mongol and aboriginal resistance in Guizhou and Yunnan in 1381-82, and pacified aboriginal peoples on the border between China and Myanmar in 1398. I have travelled to Beijing, along the Great Wall, and to China's southwestern province of Yunnan. [125][126][127] Theoretically the system of exams allowed anyone to join the ranks of imperial officials (although it was frowned upon for merchants to join); in reality the time and funding needed to support the study in preparation for the exam generally limited participants to those already coming from the landholding class. [166] Mongol and Central Asian Semu Muslim women and men were required by Ming Code to marry Han Chinese after the first Ming Emperor Hongwu passed the law in Article 122. Until the late 16th century Mongols still constituted one-in-three officers serving in capital forces like the Embroidered Uniform Guard, and other peoples such as Jurchens were also prominent. B. [55] The Oirats held the Zhengtong Emperor for ransom. After she sees the dark side of Ming politics, she decides to give up on . [130] In 276 years of Ming rule and ninety palace examinations, the number of doctoral degrees granted by passing the palace examinations was 24,874. The Ming Emperors strongly sponsored the construction of mosques and granted generous liberties for the practice of Islam.[170]. The Mongol attacks on China between 1483 and 1489 signaled the end of Chinese expansion in the North. Sole capital from 1368 to 1403; primary capital from 1403 to 1421; secondary capital after 1421. [154] Yuan Hongdao and his two brothers, Yuan Zongdao (15601600) and Yuan Zhongdao (15701623), were the founders of the Gong'an School of letters. While coveted by collectors, the Zanadu sticks are designed to be used in shows day after day. [173] A series of spectacular failures by the Chinese astronomers including missing an eclipse easily computed by Xu Guangqi and Sabatino de Ursis and a return by the Jesuits to presenting themselves as educated scholars in the Confucian mold[174] restored their fortunes. After the battle of Jing Dynasties, the royal priest Jing Qing and his wife are killed. The Jiajing emperor had to deal with the rise . The Ming scholar most influential upon subsequent generations, however, was Wang Yangming (14721529), whose teachings were attacked in his own time for their similarity to Chan Buddhism. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, Chen Youliang, in the Battle of Lake Poyang, arguably the largest naval battle in history. The mu in the title refers to the synonyms of each name. It was no useon April 24, Li's army broke through the city walls and captured Beijing. Season 1. [63] The Bozhou rebellion by the Chiefdom of Bozhou was going on in southwestern China at the same time as the Imjin War. The Ming regime restored the former literary examinations for public office, which pleased the literary world, dominated by Southerners. [148] In the later years of the dynasty, Feng Menglong and Ling Mengchu innovated with vernacular short fiction. [198] Although the Ming had adopted Guo Shoujing's Shoushi calendar of 1281, which was just as accurate as the Gregorian Calendar, the Ming Directorate of Astronomy failed to periodically readjust it; this was perhaps due to their lack of expertise since their offices had become hereditary in the Ming and the Statutes of the Ming prohibited private involvement in astronomy. Resentment over such massive changes in population and the resulting government presence and policies sparked more Miao and Yao revolts in 1464 to 1466, which were crushed by an army of 30,000 Ming troops (including 1,000 Mongols) joining the 160,000 local Guangxi. Secondary capital from 1403 to 1421; primary capital from 1421 to 1644. ", "5 From Woman's Fertility to Masculine Authority: The Story of the White Emperor Heavenly Kings in Western Hunan", "The Yellow Register Archives of Imperial Ming China", Ming History: An Introductory Guide to Research, The Ming History English Translation Project, The Ming-Qing conflict, 1619-1683: A historiography and source guide, Notable Ming dynasty painters and galleries, Ming dynasty art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Highlights from the British Museum exhibition, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ming_dynasty&oldid=1142016790, Swope, Kenneth M. "Manifesting Awe: Grand Strategy and Imperial Leadership in the Ming Dynasty. [198][199] This was the same Zhu Zaiyu who discovered the system of tuning known as equal temperament, a discovery made simultaneously by Simon Stevin (15481620) in Europe. ThoughtCo. What major types of decoration in ceramics emerged during the Ming Dynasty? His Bencao Gangmu is a medical text with 1,892 entries, each entry with its own name called a gang. [235] Even though underreporting figures was made a capital crime in 1381, the need for survival pushed many to abandon the tax registration and wander from their region, where Hongwu had attempted to impose rigid immobility on the populace. This occurred shortly after he learned about the fate of the capital and an army of Li Zicheng marching towards him; weighing his options of alliance, he decided to side with the Manchus. [119] The dynasty had a vast imperial household, staffed with thousands of eunuchs, who were headed by the Directorate of Palace Attendants. [69] Although there were several dictatorial eunuchs throughout the Ming, such as Wang Zhen, Wang Zhi, and Liu Jin, excessive tyrannical eunuch power did not become evident until the 1590s when the Wanli Emperor increased their rights over the civil bureaucracy and granted them power to collect provincial taxes.[63][70]. 6. Not only did the traditional gentry dominated the system, they also learned that conservatism and resistance to new ideas was the path to success. Jin Ping Mei, published in 1610, although incorporating earlier material, marks the trend toward independent and! In 1638 Banner armies defeated and conquered Joseon 100,000 troops in the refers. Ming politics, she decides to give up on and expansion historical work lambasting and his. With its own name called a gang each entry with its own name called a gang that return... To 1421 ; primary capital from 1403 to 1421 ; secondary capital from 1368 to 1403 ; primary capital 1403. 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